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Hubert de Givenchy opened his first couture house in 1952 and created a sensation with his separates, which could be mixed
and matched at will. Most renowned was his Bettina blouse made from shirting, which was named after his top model. Soon, boutiques
were opened in Rome, Zurich, and Buenos Aires.
A man of immense taste and discrimination, he was, perhaps more than any other designer of the period, an integral part
of the world whose understated elegance he helped to define.
Pierre Balmain opened his own salon in 1945. It was in a series of collections named 'Jolie Madame' that he experienced his
greatest success, from 1952 onwards. Balmain's vision of the elegantly-dressed woman was particularly Parisian and was typified
by the tailored glamour of the New Look, with its ample bust, narrow waist, and full skirts, by mastery of cut and imaginative
assemblies of fabrics in subtle color combinations.
His sophisticated clientèle was equally at home with luxurious elegance, simple tailoring, and a more natural look. Along
with his haute couture work, the talented businessman pioneered a ready-to-wear range called Florilege and also launched a
number of highly successful perfumes.
The first fashion designer who was not simply a dressmaker was Charles Frederick Worth (1826 1895). Before the former draper
set up his maison couture (fashion house) in Paris, clothing design and creation was handled by largely anonymous seamstresses,
and high fashion descended from that worn at royal courts. Worth's success was such that he was able to dictate to his customers
what they should wear, instead of following their lead as earlier dressmakers had done. The term couturier was in fact first
created in order to describe him. It was during this period that many design houses began to hire artists to sketch or paint
designs for garments. The images were shown to clients much more cheaply than by producing an actual sample garment in the
workroom. If the client liked the design, they ordered it and the resulting garment made money for the house. Thus, the tradition
of designers sketching out garment designs instead of presenting completed garments on models to customers began as an economy.
Also notable is the return of Coco Chanel (who detested the New Look) to the fashion world. Following the closure of her salons
in the war years, in 1954, aged over seventy, she staged a comeback and on February 5 she presented a collection which contained
a whole range of ideas that would be adopted and copied by women all over the world: her famous little braided suit with gold
chains, shiny costume jewelry, silk blouses in colors that matched the suit linings, sleek tweeds, monogrammed buttons, flat
black silk bows, boaters, quilted bags on chains, and evening dresses and furs that were marvels of simplicity.
After the war, the American look (which consisted of broad shoulders, floral ties, straight-legged pants, and shirts with
long pointed collars, often worn hanging out rather than tucked in) became very popular among men in Europe. Certain London
manufacturers ushered in a revival of Edwardian elegance in men's fashion.
Fashion, by definition, changes constantly. The changes may proceed more rapidly than in most other fields of human activity.
For some, modern fast-paced changes in fashion embody many of the negative aspects of capitalism: it results in waste and
encourages people qua consumers to buy things unnecessarily. Other people, especially young people, enjoy the diversity that
changing fashion can apparently provide, seeing the constant change as a way to satisfy their desire to experience "new"
and "interesting" things. Note too that fashion can change to enforce uniformity, as in the case where so-called
Mao suits became the national uniform of mainland China.
At the same time there remains an equal or larger range designated (at least currently) 'out of fashion'. (These or similar
fashions may cyclically come back 'into fashion' in due course, and remain 'in fashion' again for a while.)
Practically every aspect of appearance that can be changed has been changed at some time, for example skirt lengths ranging
from ankle to mini to so short that it barely covers anything, etc. In the past, new discoveries and lesser-known parts of
the world could provide an impetus to change fashions based on the exotic: Europe in the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries,
for example, might favor things Turkish at one time, things Chinese at another, and things Japanese at a third. A modern version
of exotic clothing includes club wear. Globalization has reduced the options of exotic novelty in more recent times, and has
seen the introduction of non-Western wear into the Western world.
Fashion houses and their associated fashion designers, as well as high-status consumers (including celebrities), appear
to have some role in determining the rates and directions of fashion change.
Many of the radical changes in fashion developed in the streets of London, with such gifted designers as Mary Quant (known
for launching the mini skirt) and Barbara Hulanicki (the founder of the legendary boutique Biba). Paris also had its share
of new and revolutionary designers, including Pierre Cardin (known for his visionary and skilfully-cut designs), André Courrèges
(known for his futuristic outfits and for launching the mini skirt along with Mary Quant), Yves Saint Laurent (known for his
revolutionary yet elegant fashions), and Emanuel Ungaro (known for his imaginative use of color and bold baroque contrasts).
In the United States, Rudi Gernreich (known for his avant-garde and futuristic designs) and James Galanos (known for his luxurious
read-to-wear) were also reaching a young audience. The main outlets for these new young fashion designers were small boutiques,
selling outfits that were not exactly 'one-offs', but were made in small quantities in a limited range of sizes and colors.
However, not all designers took well to the new style and mood. In 1965, Coco Chanel mounted a rearguard action against the
exposure of the knee and Balenciaga resolutely continued to produce feminine and conservative designs.
An important part of fashion is fashion journalism. Editorial critique and commentary can be found in magazines, newspapers,
on television, fashion websites and in fashion blogs.
At the beginning of the 20th century, fashion magazines began to include photographs and became even more influential
than in the past. In cities throughout the world these magazines were greatly sought-after and had a profound effect on public
taste. Talented illustrators drew exquisite fashion plates for the publications which covered the most recent developments
in fashion and beauty. Perhaps the most famous of these magazines was La Gazette du Bon Ton which was founded in 1912 by Lucien
Vogel and regularly published until 1925 (with the exception of the war years).
Vogue, founded in the US in 1902, has been the longest-lasting and most successful of the hundreds of fashion magazines
that have come and gone. Increasing affluence after World War II and, most importantly, the advent of cheap colour printing
in the 1960s led to a huge boost in its sales, and heavy coverage of fashion in mainstream women's magazines - followed by
men's magazines from the 1990s. Haute couture designers followed the trend by starting the ready-to-wear and perfume lines,
heavily advertised in the magazines, that now dwarf their original couture businesses. Television coverage began in the 1950s
with small fashion features. In the 1960s and 1970s, fashion segments on various entertainment shows became more frequent,
and by the 1980s, dedicated fashion shows like FashionTelevision started to appear.
World War II created many radical changes in the fashion industry. After the war, Paris's reputation as the global center
of fashion began to crumble and off-the-peg and mass-manufactured fashions became increasingly popular. A new youth style
emerged in the Fifties, changing the focus of fashion forever. As the installation of central heating became more widespread
the age of minimum-care garments began and lighter textiles and, eventually, synthetics, were introduced.
Faced with the threat of a factory-made fashion-based product, Parisian haute couture mounted its defenses, but to little
effect, as it could not stop fashion leaking out onto the streets. Before long, whole categories of women hitherto restricted
to inferior substitutes to haute couture would enjoy a greatly enlarged freedom of choice. Dealing in far larger quantities,
production cycles were longer than those of couture workshops, which meant that stylists planning their lines for the twice-yearly
collections had to try to guess more than a year in advance what their customers would want. A new power was afoot, that of
the street, constituting a further threat to the dictatorship of the masters of coutures.
As in France, the majority of British fashion houses are based in the capital, London. Where as the French are considered
the epitome of style and fashion in ladies' garments, the pinnacle of men's is considered to be London[citation needed], Savile
Row in particular. British fashion houses are associated with a very traditional, British style: elegant, yet conservative
cuts, fine yet not overly extravagant materials and a sort of noble, even 'imperial' elegance, such as that of traditional
'Fifties debutantes' gowns, compared to the French 'chic'. The first fashion designer, Charles Worth, was a native of Britain,
although he made his name in Paris in the 19th century. In the 1920s, Norman Hartnell became known for elaborate evening gowns,
and went on to design Queen Elizabeth II's world-renowned wedding and coronation gowns, along with others for many members
of the British royal family. Famous British Designers include Vivienne Westwood, Paul Smith, John Galliano, Alexander McQueen,
Stella McCartney, Matthew Williamson, Luella Bartley, Sir Hardy Amies, Christopher Bailey, Bruce Oldfield and Christopher
Kane,
The dress designed for the Queen's wedding contained 10,000 seed pearls and many thousands of white crystal beads. For its
display in 2003 for the anniversary of the coronation of Her Majesty The Queen, 10 restorers worked on it. In the embroidery,
various symbols for different countries of the Commonwealth can be seen, such as the Scottish thistle, Australian wattle,
the maple leaf of Canada and the pearly lotus flower for India.
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The British Teddy boy subculture is typified by young men wearing clothes inspired by the styles of the Edwardian period,
which Savile Row tailors had tried to re-introduce after World War II. The group got its name after a 1953 newspaper headline
shortened Edward to Teddy and coined the term Teddy boy (also known as Ted). The subculture started in London, England in
the 1950s and rapidly spread across the UK; soon becoming strongly associated with American rock and roll music of the period.
The Teddy Boys were the first youth group in England to differentiate themselves as teenagers, thus helping to create a youth
market.
Some groups of Teds formed gangs and gained notoriety following violent clashes with rival gangs, which were often exaggerated
by the popular press. The most notable was the Notting Hill riot of 1958, in which Teddy Boys were conspicuous within racist
white mobs who roamed the area attacking black people and damaging their property.
In the 1960s, many Teddy Boys became rockers.
Teddy Boys made it acceptable for young people to care about what one looked like all the time and dress purely for show,
instead of just having one's work or school clothes or Sunday best. This trend arose as young people's disposable income increased
during the post-war years. Teddy Boy clothing consisted of: long drape jackets, usually in dark shades, sometimes with velvet
trim collar and pocket flaps; high-waisted drainpipe trousers, often showing brightly coloured socks. Favoured footwear were
chunky brogues, large crepe-soled shoes, often suede (known as brothel creepers) or winklepickers, shoes or ankle boots with
exaggeratedly pointed toes. Plus a high-necked loose collar on a white shirt (known as a Mr. B. collar because it was often
worn by jazz musician Billy Eckstine); a narrow 'Slim Jim' tie, and a brocade waistcoat.
Flying in the face of continuity, logic, and erudite sociological predictions, fashion in the 1950s, far from being revolutionary
and progressive, bore strong nostalgic echoes of the past. A whole society which, in the 1920s and '30s, had greatly believed
in progress, was now much more circumspect.
Despite the fact that women had the right to vote, to work, and to drive their own cars, they chose to wear dresses made
of opulent materials, with corseted waists and swirling skirts to mid-calf. As fashion looked to the past, haute couture experienced
something of a revival and spawned a myriad of star designers who profited hugely from the rapid growth of the media.
Throughout the 1950s, although it would be for the last time, women around the world continued to submit to the trends
of Parisian haute couture. Three of the most prominent of the Parisian couturiers of the time were Cristobal Balenciaga, Hubert
de Givenchy, and Pierre Balmain. The frugal prince of luxury, Cristobal Balenciaga Esagri made his fashion debut in the late
Thirties. However, it was not until the post-war years that the full scale of the inventiveness of this highly original designer
became evident. In 1951, he totally transformed the silhouette, broadening the shoulders and removing the waist.
In 1955, he designed the tunic dress, which later developed into the chemise dress of 1957. And eventually, in 1959, his
work culminated in the Empire line, with high-waisted dresses and coats cut like kimonos. His mastery of fabric design and
creation defied belief. Balenciaga is also notable as one of the few couturiers in fashion history who could use their own
hands to design, cut, and sew the models which symbolized the height of his artistry
The designers of Hollywood created a particular type of glamour for the stars of American film, and outfits worn by the likes
of Marilyn Monroe, Lauren Bacall, or Grace Kelly were widely copied. Quantitatively speaking, a costume worn by an actress
in a Hollywood movie would have a much bigger audience than the photograph of a dress designed by a couturier illustrated
in a magazine read by no more than a few thousand people. Without even trying to keep track of all the Paris styles, its costume
designers focused on their own version of classicism, which was meant to be timeless, flattering, and photogenic. Using apparently
luxurious materials, such as sequins, chiffon, and fur, the clothes were very simply cut, often including some memorable detail,
such as a low-cut back to a dress which was only revealed when the actress turned her back from the camera or some particularly
stunning accessory.
Within the fashion industry, intellectual property is not enforced as it is within the film industry and music industry. While
brand names and logos are protected, designs are not. Smaller, boutique, designers have lost revenue after their designs have
been taken and marketed by bigger businesses with more resources. Some observers have noted, however, that the relative freedom
that fashion designers have to "take inspiration" from others' designs contributes to the fashion industry's ability
to establish clothing trends. Tempting consumers to buy clothing by establishing new trends is, some have argued, a key component
of the industry's success. Intellectual property rules that interfere with the process of trend-making would, on this view,
be counter-productive. In 2005, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) held a conference calling for stricter
intellectual property enforcement within the fashion industry to better protect small and medium businesses and promote competitiveness
within the textile and clothing industries
Throughout the early 20th century, practically all high fashion originated in Paris, and to a lesser extent London. Fashion
magazines from other countries sent editors to the Paris fashion shows. Department stores sent buyers to the Paris shows,
where they purchased garments to copy and openly stole the style lines and trim details of others. Both made-to-measure salons,
and ready-to-wear departments, featured the latest Paris trends,and adapted to the stores' assumptions about the lifestyles
and pocket books of their targeted customers.
At this time in fashion history the division between haute couture and ready-to-wear was not sharply defined. The two
separate modes of production were still far from being competitors, and, indeed, they often co-existed in houses where the
seamstresses moved freely between made-to-measure and ready-made.
Around the start of the twentieth-century fashion magazines began to include photographs and became even more influential
than in the past. In cities throughout the world these magazines were greatly sought-after and had a profound effect on public
taste. Talented illustrators among them Paul Iribe, George Lepape and George Barbier drew exquisite fashion plates for these
publications, which covered the most recent developments in fashion and beauty. Perhaps the most famous of these magazines
was La Gazette du Bon Ton, which was founded in 1912 by Lucien Vogel and regularly published until 1925 (with the exception
of the war years).
The Brazilian model Gisele Bündchen is one of the most famous faces seen on fashion magazine covers.
Fashion journalism is an umbrella term used to describe all aspects of published fashion media. Sometimes referred to as fashion
writers, fashion critics or fashion reporters. The most obvious examples of fashion journalism are the fashion features in
magazines and newspapers, but the term also includes books about fashion, fashion related reports on television as well as
online fashion magazines, websites and blogs.
During the late twentieth century fashions began to criss-cross international boundaries with rapidity. Popular Western styles
were adopted all over the world, and many designers from outside of the West had a profound impact on fashion. Synthetic materials
such as Lycra, Spandex, and viscose became widely-used, and fashion, after two decades of looking to the future, once again
turned to the past for integration. Currently, modern fashion has seen a reference to technology such as designers Hussein
Chalayan and Miuccia Prada who have introduced industrial textiles and modern technology into their fall collections.
Winklepicker boots and shoes were part of the standard clothing worn by Teddy Boys. The male boots were of leather, elastic-sided
and had a two-inch, and later as much as two and one half inch, Cuban heel. The male shoes were lace-up Oxford style with
a one and a half or two inch usually Cuban Heel. Winklepicker shoes and later boots, were also worn by the Teddy Girls as
well as being a fleeting fashion for young women generally.
In the early 1960s the winklepicker toe was popular with modernists, the forerunners of the mods. In the early 1960's the
point was effectively chopped off (they hung on for longer than that in the UK) and gave rise to the "chisel toe"
on the footwear of both genders. However, winklepickers with traditional sharp-point styles made a comeback of sorts in the
late 1970s and early 1980s (either as previously unworn old-stock, second-hand originals, or contemporary-production attempted
copies) when they were sold at London indoor markets like Kensington Market and Chelsea's Great Gear Market and worn by several
subculture groups including Mods, Rockabillies, Punks, Rock'n'Roll Revivalists, and in the goth scene, where they are known
as "pikes".
Winklepickers with stiletto heels for women swept the UK in the middle sixties and at one stage the High Street versions
were worn by virtually all the female English population who wore high heeled shoes. They were often manufactured in Italy,
but the handmade versions, notably those from Stan's Shoes of Battersea were the most extreme, if somewhat bulky-looking at
the toe compared with the Italian styles.
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